Prepositions Archives - English Lessons Brighton

Recognising verb constructions following “to be”

Phil Williams — Tue, 23 Jan 2018 10:00:00 +0000

The verb “to be” can be used in descriptive clauses or as an auxiliary verb to create certain grammatical structures, such as the continuous tenses and the passive voice. This can lead to confusion when a verb or verb form follows the verb “to be” – how do you recognise which structure is being used? Consider this example: “The museum is supposed to be _______ in the morning.” (open) Opening would form the continuous tense, open would be an adjective form, opened would form a passive sentence. Each of these could be arguably correct – so how do we know the difference?

Identifying different uses of “to be”

In some cases, it will be clear from the sentence which form should follow “to be” – particularly when the context suggests you are describing something, or a time indicates a tense use:

What I liked most was that the film was interesting. (What I liked suggests we are describing an attribute)
They were reading all night long. (all night long gives a time for a process verb)

Phrases surrounding the verb can also give a clear indication of how the verb is being used. Prepositional phrases are particularly important here as they indicate how the verb connects to other ideas in the sentence, suggesting its use. It’s not enough to simply look at the preposition, as they can have various uses, but here are some general examples that may help identify the correct verb form.

For with a duration indicates time, which can suggest a continuous tense, though for followed by a noun can also indicate purpose, which can suggest either a continuous tense or a passive statement (e.g. We were waiting for ten minutes. / We were waiting for a bus.). This is less likely to indicate a description – though in some cases it might suggest a particular viewpoint (It was pleasing for me.)

To can be used as a preposition to indicate that a describing word impacts a noun (e.g. She was interesting to me.), but to as part of an infinitive would suggest the purpose of a continuous tense or passive statement (e.g. She was dancing to feel happy. , The window was opened to let in fresh air.).

By could be followed by a noun to indicate the actor of a verb, suggesting a continuous or passive use (e.g. The dinner was cooked by his mum.). Similarly, it can demonstrate location (The couple were kissing by the oak tree.). When by indicates a time, the verb use may not be immediately clear – They were walking by lunchtime. They were soaking by dinner. They were hidden by dusk.

In the example above, They were walking by lunchtime. Is a continuous statement but They were soaking by dinner. is in the past simple (with soaking used as an adjective). How do we know this? Because to soak is a transitive verb (requiring an object) – as there is no object in the sentence, we can see it is being used in an adjective form, not a verb form. In other cases, phrasal verb particles or particular forms that follow a verb (such as infinitives or +ing forms) can indicate a particular verb use. Another way to decide if an adjective form is used instead of a verb form is to replace it with another adjective – if the sentence still works, then the adjective form is possible.

They were happy by dinner.

This does not necessarily mean a verb form isn’t possible, however; They were dancing by dinner. could also work.

These ideas are all clues to unravel the correct form – but in many cases we could have a “to be” statement where the sentence alone does not indicate a definite, correct form for the verb. For example: “It is _____ in Paris. (rain)” The correct answer is easy and clear If we know a verb or an adjective is required – but otherwise different forms could correct. It is raining in Paris. / It is rainy in Paris. Generally, understanding the context of your sentence will make this easy to decide – but this indicates how, often, there are no simple rules to explain what a word form should be when following “to be”.

“To be” + verbs Exercise

I’ve developed a short exercise to practice some of the different forms that follow “to be”. If you find any of these difficult, the answers below give explanations to help explain how to identify the correct form. I’ve repeated each root word twice to demonstrate different uses.

The cat was _____ milk. (drink)
The door was _____ by the security guard. (open)
We are _____ these exercises hard. (find)
This artwork is _____ to look at. (please)
The man was _____ on wine. (drink)
The bar was _____ all night. (open)
Many people are _____ in the lobby. (wait)
The escaped prisoners were _____ by the police. (find)
He was _____ to be invited to the party. (please)
She was _____ on by the restaurant manager himself. (wait)

ANSWERS

The cat was drinking milk.
The door was opened by the security guard. (by followed by an actor indicates a passive form)
We are finding these exercises hard. (there are no prepositions to indicate a separate actor, so no suggestion that this is passive)
This artwork is pleasing to look at. (the context suggests the sentence is descriptive, and the correct adjective form (artwork has an external impact, pleasing, rather than receiving the pleasure, pleased)
The man was drunk on wine. (the prepositional phrase indicates what caused a particular state, making it descriptive)
The bar was open all night. (the time period indicates a state; it could also be used with a process verb (was opening all night) but the context suggests the state is more likely)
Many people are waiting in the lobby. (there is no simple alternative to the verb form here – waited is not used as a descriptive word, though would be possible as a simple phrasal verb with on, waited on)
The escaped prisoners were found by the police. (the prepositional phrase describes an actor so we know this is passive)
He was pleased to be invited to the party. (the context suggests a state, his condition, but in this case he receives the pleasure rather than gives it, as in 4)
She was waited on by the restaurant manager himself. (on tells this is a phrasal verb, while the preposition by tells us as actor did this verb to the subject, requiring the passive form)

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Bird of prey and other “noun of noun” constructions

Phil Williams — Tue, 07 Mar 2017 09:59:21 +0000

Subjects formed with multiple nouns connected by of can mean consisting of, or taken from, for example ‘piece of cake’, but can also mean belonging to, or with the purpose of, such as ‘father of the bride’. ‘Bird of prey’ can be confusing, though, because it seems to have the opposite meaning – bird of prey may sound like it belongs to prey, but actually it is a predator. So how do these different examples work?

Forming noun phrases with ‘of’

Start by noticing the difference between a ‘piece of cake’ and a ‘bird of prey’ is that in the first instance, when the object is a part of something else, the main object comes after of. In the second example, when the object has a purpose or belongs to the second noun, the main object comes before of.

Consider the examples:

piece of cake – describes cake, as a portion
type of car – describes a car, as a category
bird of prey – describes a bird, whose purpose is prey
father of the bride – describes the father, who belongs to the bride
president of the country – describes the president, who belongs to the country

While the last two examples demonstrate belonging, then, it can seem odd that the bird of prey does not belong to the prey. This is because it shows a purpose, rather than belonging. In this way of can sometimes show what something is for, or, alternative, what something possesses. Another example would be ‘man/woman of many talents’ – possessing or using talents, rather than belonging to them.

‘Man of war’ is another archaic example – now typically used to describe a type of ship, it would also mean in its original sense a man whose purpose was war.

I hope this goes some way to clear up why we have this seemingly contradictory construction in certain noun phrases. Let me know if you have any questions!

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Moby Dick Advanced Reading and Prepositions Exercise

Phil Williams — Thu, 10 Nov 2016 09:45:32 +0000

Below are the (slightly edited) opening paragraphs of the epic, classic novel Moby-Dick, by Herman Melville. Published in 1851, this story is studied in schools as one of the Great American Novels, and its opening line, “Call me Ishmael” is one of the most famous in English literature. As a classic, it uses advanced and sometimes archaic language, making it good practice for formal (and difficult!) prose. To give you an extra challenge, this passage has missing prepositions, and it’s up to you to complete the text. Blank spaces show where there should be prepositions, the answers are given below.

Vocabulary

There’s some very interesting words and phrases in this passage, some which are not really used in English. The following should help with understanding, though there may be plenty more worth looking up:

Regulating the circulation – helping with blood flow
Involuntarily – against your will
If they but knew it – an archaic form using ‘if…but’ similarly to ‘if only’
Waterward – towards the water
Circumambulate – walk around
Reveries – daydreams

Moby-Dick Advanced Reading and Prepositions Exercise

Call me Ishmael. Some years ago–never mind how long precisely–having little or no money 1. _____ my purse, and nothing particular to interest me 2. _____ shore, I thought I would sail 3. _____ a little and see the watery part 4. _____ the world. It is a way I have of driving 5. _____ the spleen and regulating the circulation. Whenever I find myself growing grim 6. _____ the mouth; whenever it is a damp, drizzly November in my soul; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing 7. _____ coffin warehouses, and bringing 8. _____ the rear of every funeral I meet. Whenever my condition get such an upper hand of me, that requires a strong moral principle to prevent me from deliberately stepping 9. _____ the street, and methodically knocking people’s hats 10. _____ –then, I account it high time to get 11. _____ sea as soon as I can. This is my substitute for pistol and ball. With a philosophical flourish Cato throws himself 12. _____ his sword; I quietly take to the ship. There is nothing surprising 13. _____ this. If they but knew it, almost all men, some time or other, cherish the same feelings towards the ocean 14. _____ me.

There now is your insular city of the Manhattoes, belted round 15. _____ wharves – commerce surrounds it 16. _____ her surf. Right and left, the streets take you waterward. Its extreme downtown is the battery, where that noble mole is washed 17. _____ waves, and cooled 18. _____ breezes, which a few hours previous were out 19. _____ sight of land. Look at the crowds of water-gazers there.

Circumambulate the city 20. _____ a dreamy Sabbath afternoon. Go 21. _____ Corlears Hook to Coenties Slip, and from thence, by Whitehall, northward. What do you see?–Posted like silent sentinels all around the town, stand thousands 22. _____ thousands of mortal men fixed 23. _____ ocean reveries. Some leaning 24. _____ the supports; some seated upon the pier-heads; some looking 25. _____ the bulwarks of ships from China; some high aloft in the rigging, as if striving to get a still better seaward peep. But these are all landsmen; of week days pent up in lath and plaster–tied to counters, nailed to benches, clinched to desks. How then is this? Are the green fields gone? What do they do 26. _____?

Answers

in
on
about (around would also work)
of
off (away would work, and arguably out)
about (around would also work)
before
up
into
off
to
upon
in
as (in the original text the archaic version is ‘with’)
by
with
by
by
of
on (in the original the archaic version is ‘of’)
from
upon
in
against
over
here

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10 Easily Confused Sets of Words and Phrases Explained

Phil Williams — Thu, 12 May 2016 11:00:09 +0000

A few weeks ago I wrote an article about the differences between the words plain and plane; it’s one of many articles I have on this site exploring confusing, or easily misunderstood, words and phrases. With so much content on this site, I thought it was time I created a quick, simple list of such articles so you can quickly learn the differences. I’ve placed example sentences beneath each heading so you can get an idea of what you’ll learn.

10 Easily Confused Words and Phrases Explained

What’s the difference between “plane” and “plain”?

A higher plane of existence.
The plains of America.

What’s the difference between “few” and “a few”?

He has few friends.
She has a few good ideas.

What’s the difference between “in case” and “if”?

Break the glass in case of emergency.
Break the glass if you must.

What’s the difference between “in general” and “generally”?

I like cheese in general.
I generally like cheese.

What’s the difference between “on display” and “in a display”?

The crown was on display.
The necklace was in a display.

What’s the difference between “smile at” and “smile to”?

The man smiled at the picture.
The woman smiled to her friend.

What’s the difference between “ready”, “willing” and “able”?

We’re ready, willing and able to do this task!

What’s the difference between “solve” and “resolve”?

She solved the puzzle.
She resolved the argument.

What’s the difference between “answer” and “answer to”?

I answered the question.
He answered to his manager.

What’s the difference between “from”, “out of” and “among”?

From my friends, out of my friends and among my friends…

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Where are prepositions placed in English sentences?

Phil Williams — Thu, 04 Feb 2016 11:19:59 +0000

How can we define the rules for placing a preposition in a sentence? Before a noun? After a verb? One of the additions to the second edition of Word Order in English Sentences is a guide to prepositions. Though they are often connected to other parts of a sentence, such as noun phrases, and often have specific or flexible rules, like adverbs, prepositions have some general rules that can help with understanding how they fit into a sentence, explained in detail below.

Where a prepositions placed in a sentence?

Usually, prepositions connect things to other sentence components – objects, ideas, anything typically created by a noun phrase. As such, they usually come before a noun.

There was a spider on her back.
It was cold at the top of the hill.
They met in the old barn.

As a general rule, the preposition should come directly before its complement. This means the preposition is essentially part of its noun phrase, and can be moved as part of a noun phrase.

We had coffee on the beach. OR On the beach, we had coffee.
There was mud in my eyes. In my eyes!
The young squirrel buried her nuts under a pile of leaves last autumn. I looked under the pile of leaves. Under the pile of leaves there were nuts.

Note that because the preposition shows a connection, if you replace the rest of a noun phrase with a pronoun you still need the preposition:

Under the pile of leaves. becomes Under it.

Prepositions do not always move with their complement, however, and can be found at the end of a clause. This is more typical in informal language.

This is the book I was looking for.
Who would you like to talk to?
I don’t know what that film was about.

There are four main situations where this happens, question words, passive structures, relative clauses, and infinitives, which are covered below.

Prepositions in Questions

Questions formed with question words, where the question word replaces the object of the preposition, often have the preposition at the end of the clause.

Where did they go to?
Who are you talking about?
When are you staying until?
How much did you buy that for?

This also happens with indirect questions.

I don’t know where we are going to.
It was unclear who they were talking about.

Questions can also be formed with only a question word and preposition, when the verb is understood. In this case, the preposition normally comes after the question word, but can often be reversed:

Where to? / To where?
What with? / With what?
How much for? / For how much?

In formal language, prepositions are often placed further forwards in questions, coming before the question word.

For whom was this dinner made?
About which opera are you talking?

This is less common and can sound quite unnatural, and with some question forms (such as what…for and where…to) it is especially uncommon.

Prepositions in Passive Structures

In passive structures, the preposition stays with the verb.

He stayed in the hotel. The hotel was stayed in.
They fell on the mat. The mat was fallen on.

If you create a passive structure from an active structure and keep the original subject (as an object), it will follow the preposition.

My father walked on the hill. The hill was walked on by my father.

Even in formal language, in passive structures prepositions stay with verbs.

The lady was spoken about in hushed tones. (NOT The lady about which was spoken…)

Prepositions in Relative Clauses

Prepositions normally go at the end of a relative clause.

That’s the girl I danced with.
I found the book I was looking for.

This may be considered informal. In formal use, the preposition can come earlier, before a relative pronoun.

That’s the girl with whom I danced.
I found the book for which I was looking.

As with formal questions, this use is less common.

Prepositions in Infinitive Structures

When infinitives are used as complements, for example following stative verbs (to be), they can be followed by a preposition.

She was not prepared to swim on.
The king is a delightful man to talk with.

Placing the preposition before an infinitive structure is very formal.

The king is a delightful man with whom to talk.

This guide has been taken from my grammar book, Word Order in English Sentences – if you’d like to learn more about the components of English sentences and how they fit together structurally, check out the rest of the book!

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What’s the difference between ‘smile to’ and ‘smile at’?

Phil Williams — Tue, 10 Nov 2015 11:30:52 +0000

What is the difference between She smiled at him. and She smiled to him.? Sometimes, there is none. Other times, one might clearly be correct (or incorrect). It’s useful to look at individual examples of preposition use like this with examples and explanations to get a grasp of them in practice, as I have previously covered with topics such as display with in and on, or by/on foot. So what can the difference between smile to and smile at tell us?

She smiled at him. – the smile was caused by him, a smile towards him because it is a smile created because of him.
She smiled to him. – the smile is communicative, sent in his direction; a smile towards him because it is one to be seen, to be shared with him.

As a smile is normally spoken of when something causes it, smile at is much more common and considered the more correct form in general. Though in many situations you may find the two used interchangeably, simply because a smile caused by something is usually also directed at it. But to smile to something will have its uses too. With different objects this can become clearer, and the uses more distinct.

She smiled at his funny behaviour.
She smiled to him so he would know she cared.

In these examples, to smile at is more like smile because of… while smile to is like smile for… Consider:

She smiled at the joke. – the joke made her smile
She smiled to the guard as they walked past. – the smile was specifically used to share a communication

These are not absolutes, and people may argue them one way or another. But hopefully this goes some way to explaining how different preposition uses with similar meanings can sometimes lead to different points.

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The difference between ‘from’, ‘out of’ and ‘among’

Phil Williams — Thu, 26 Mar 2015 11:26:04 +0000

Certain prepositions like from, out of and among may be interchangeable in certain contexts, in this comparison with all essentially meaning chosen from a group. For example, these three sentences essentially mean the same thing:

I had to choose which I liked best from ten ice creams.
I had to choose which I liked best out of ten ice creams.
I had to choose which I liked best among ten ice creams.

In this case, it easy to understand that choice was from among a group of ice creams, whichever preposition you use. However, each preposition has its own nuances, and has slightly different meanings – differences that have no effect in some contexts, but make a sentence wrong in others.

When to use ‘from’, ‘out of’ or ‘among’

These three prepositions have roots, clearer in other uses, that help highlight their differences.

I took a book from the library. – away from / to another location
I took a picture out of the book. – out and away (from inside to out, as opposed to simply away)
I took a picture among the pigeons. – within the pigeons, connected to the group

These three meanings can carry to sentences where the prepositions appear to be interchangeable, such as above with the ice cream – from and out of essentially elevating one ice cream above the others (removing it from the group), while among focuses more on the selection within the group, rather than which is best. Consider:

I like him best from all my friends.
I like him best out of all my friends.
I like him best among my friends.

From and out of make this best friend sound more important, elevating him above the other friends. Out of is the strongest, its idea of out and away separating the best friend from the others, making him noteworthy. Among, however, focuses on the group – he is the best among the friends, which makes him special within that group, not necessarily singling him out separate to them. It’s a subtle point, and one that is rarely going to cause any problems – but if you notice incidents where people think one preposition is better than another, when they seem interchangeable, these are the subtleties responsible!

‘From’, ‘out of’ and ‘among’ Exercise

In the following sentences, fill the gap with ‘from’, ‘out of’ or ‘among’. In some cases there are multiple possible answers.

I swam _____ the sharks.
I drove the car _____ the garage.
I took a bus _____ London to Paris.
We freed the prisoners _____ the island.
She slept _____ the weeds.
Rupert jumped _____ the burning building.
I chose _____ two different colours.
Geraldine was not sure who _____ her friends to trust.
The dog stole _____ the butcher’s.
He selected the best parrot _____ the bunch.

Mixed Preposition Phrases Exercise

Phil Williams — Thu, 12 Feb 2015 10:11:11 +0000

Prepositional phrases and phrasal verbs often have very specific patterns that are difficult to guess. This means it is sometimes necessary to learn such phrases individually. The following exercise will test a range of prepositional phrases and phrasal verbs in a selection of sentences. Answers are given underneath, with brief explanations.

Remember, in prepositional phrases, we use a specific preposition to relate one noun (subject or object) to another – in phrasal verbs the preposition is combined with a verb as a particle to create a very specific action.

Mixed prepositional phrases exercise

Use the prepositions below to complete the sentences. Some sentences are prepositional noun phrases, others are phrasal verbs.

between under around in off

of besides behind from of

into behind in for in for with

They say good looks run _____ my family.
We read the report many times _____ preparation for our meeting.
The earthquake caused our building to shake _____ side to side.
No one forced him to come to work when he was ill, he did it _____ his own free will.
I take a lot of pride _____ my ability to read Arabic.
Our dance class is an excellent bridge _____ different cultures.
I sold my bike _____ a profit.
She has two cars and a boat, _____ her bicycle.
Peter is so far _____ in his rent payments that they are going to throw him out.
You make a good case _____ a pay rise, but we can’t afford it.
This is the best grammar book I own, but unfortunately it’s out _____ print.
Everyone is nice to Ron at work, but they are always talking _____ his back.
When I realised I was about to miss my bus, I broke _____ a run to catch it.
Please bear _____ us while we try to fix the computer system.
What we discussed in our meeting was supposed to be _____ the record, but they printed it in the newspapers anyway.
Sales have been increasing _____ the leadership of our new boss.
If you hang _____ successful people, you are more likely to become successful yourself.

Prepositional Phrases Exercise Answers

They say good looks run in my family. (to continue by tradition)
We read the report many times in preparation for our meeting. (in readiness)
The earthquake caused our building to shake from side to side. (swaying)
No one forced him to come to work when he was ill, he did it of his own free will. (by free choice)
I take a lot of pride in my ability to read Arabic.
Our dance class is an excellent bridge between different cultures. (connecting)
I sold my bike for a profit. (for more money than I bought it)
She has two cars and a boat, besides her bicycle. (as well as, in addition to)
Peter is so far behind in his rent payments that they are going to throw him out. (delayed)
You make a good case for a pay rise, but we can’t afford it. (an argument, or point)
This is the best grammar book I own, but unfortunately it’s out of print. (no longer being produced)
Everyone is nice to Ron at work, but they are always talking behind his back. (without him knowing)
When I realised I was about to miss my bus, I broke into a run to catch it. (start suddenly)
Please bear with us while we try to fix the computer system. (stay with, wait)
What we discussed in our meeting was supposed to be off the record, but they printed it in the newspapers anyway. (unofficial, not public)
Sales have been increasing under the leadership of our new boss. (under guidance)
If you hang around successful people, you are more likely to become successful yourself. (be in the area of)

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Using “agree” and prepositions – with, on, to, about

Phil Williams — Tue, 23 Sep 2014 14:53:43 +0000

Depending on the object, you can “agree with”, “agree on”, “agree about” or “agree to” something.

All of these prepositions can be connected to a noun, so it’s the nature of the object that decides the appropriate preposition, as each connects the subject and object in a slightly different way.

Here’s how to decide which preposition to use:

Agree with someone or something

You agree with someone or something when you share or accept an opinion.

Paul said climate change is a real threat. I agreed with Paul.

You can also agree with the way something is done, particularly when that method is a matter of opinion or style. This means agree with can be followed by a method/style of doing something, or by an idea or overall concept that represents something opinion-based.

I don’t agree with the way they run this office.
She agreed with the idea to rehome the dogs.
We agreed with the government’s new measures.

Agree on a topic or subject

You agree on a topic or subject that you share a mutual view on. This has some crossover with agreeing with someone: you would agree with someone on something. You can also use agree about in this way.

Jim and Hilda agreed on where to eat.
The truck drivers agreed on the best route to Belgium.
Kyle agreed with Mandie on the terms of their contract.
We agree about everything.

So while two subjects agreeing in general agree with each other, they agree on the matter being considered. However, as we’ve seen you can also agree with ideas to show approval, so what’s the difference?

We agree with something that is agreeable to us, but we agree on something that is decided to be mutually agreeable (i.e. when two or more people express the same opinion).

I agreed with the proposals for a new school. (I liked the idea.)
The committee agreed on the proposals for a new school. (All the members accepted the idea together.)

Agree to an action or conclusion

You agree to do something, so to often connects agree to verbs in noun form. You can also agree to an arrangement of some sort (most commonly rates, amounts, terms and quantities).

I agree to cutting my hair.
They agreed to cook the dinner early.
The public did not agree to higher taxes.
She agreed to a pay cut.

Agree without a preposition

Agree can be used on its own as a general positive response. It can also be used with that when you agree about an idea represented by a clause, instead of simply a noun. Sometimes, that can be optional, so agree can be used without a preposition. This form is usually for opinions or points.

I agree that the cows in that field are getting fat.
He agreed it is too late to eat more pizza.

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Should you say “on foot” or “by foot”?

Phil Williams — Wed, 23 Apr 2014 14:24:58 +0000

When we talk about walking, we can say you go on foot or by foot, as a mode of transport. Which preposition is correct? Technically, on is more accurate, and common, and in exams you may be marked incorrect for using by foot. But why is by foot a mistake? Or is it a mistake at all? This is a perfect example of English grammar as a matter of style, not accuracy – and as you’ll see here, both are actually possible.

We can use say both – with these justifications:

Why you should say on foot

We usually use on for movements or actions that involve using body parts. You can rest on your elbows, you can pray on your knees, and you can lie on your back. Walking is no different – the action takes place on foot.

Why you could say by foot

We use by to describe a tool used for movements or actions. You can travel by plane, by boat or by car, for instance. You can send letters by post, and you can write by hand. It stands to reason, then, that you can travel by foot.

The problem

When you need to decide on proper preposition use, there are sometimes two possibilities which apparently have the same meaning, though one may be more common and seen as correct. This is particularly true when there is some crossover between the use of the preposition to link nouns. In this case, on can be used to mean the object, surface or means we travel atop, while by can mean the method transport we use. Travelling on something and using something to travel (by) can therefore produce the same meaning, with a different grammatical construction.

So which is more correct?

You move with your feet in contact with the ground, supported by your feet, making on foot a more literal description of the action. Yet your feet are also a tool of sorts, so if we want to describe what you use to travel, by foot makes perfect sense. It is not reasonable, then, to say one is more correct than the other. Yet you may be told that by foot is incorrect. Why? For the same reason that many rules exist in English:

Because on foot is more commonly used than by foot.

The English language has adapted over many centuries, and different rules come and go when it comes to grammar. It is important to recognise when a rule emerges as a matter of style, or a matter of meaning, however. Many grammar rules exist to help clarify what is said. In this case, there is no firm rule, because one expression is not more clear than the other.

You may find English people argue about this, and many other rules and sayings, because one style sounds strange to the person who uses the other. These arguments serve no grammatical purpose, and work only to limit the language. When it comes to matters of style, choose the option that you prefer. You will not be misunderstood.

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